Virtuous English AcademyScience & Research — C1 English Vocabulary
This C1 vocabulary list gathers 60 advanced English words about science & research — advanced enquiry and discovery. Every word comes with a simple definition, its British-English pronunciation and a natural example sentence, so you learn each one in real context. When you are ready, open the flashcards to practise and remember them for good.
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empiricism/ɪmˈpɪr.ɪ.sɪ.zəm/
The idea that knowledge comes from observation.
“Empiricism relies on observation.”
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peer-reviewed/ˌpɪə rɪˈvjuːd/
Checked by other experts before publication.
“It is a peer-reviewed journal.”
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replicable/ˈrep.lɪ.kə.bəl/
Able to be repeated with the same result.
“The result must be replicable.”
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falsifiable/ˌfɔːl.sɪˈfaɪ.ə.bəl/
Able to be proved false by testing.
“A good theory is falsifiable.”
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anomaly/əˈnɒm.ə.li/
Something that differs from what is normal.
“The data showed an anomaly.”
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parameter/pəˈræm.ɪ.tə/
A limit or factor that defines a study.
“We set each parameter carefully.”
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quantifiable/ˈkwɒn.tɪ.faɪ.ə.bəl/
Able to be measured as an amount.
“The benefit is not easily quantifiable.”
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extrapolation/ɪkˌstræp.əˈleɪ.ʃən/
The estimating of unknown values from known ones.
“It is based on extrapolation.”
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induction/ɪnˈdʌk.ʃən/
Reasoning from particular cases to a general rule.
“Science often relies on induction.”
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paradigmatic/ˌpær.ə.dɪɡˈmæt.ɪk/
Serving as a typical example or model.
“It was a paradigmatic shift.”
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heuristic/hjʊəˈrɪs.tɪk/
A practical method for solving problems by trial.
“They used a simple heuristic.”
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algorithmic/ˌæl.ɡəˈrɪð.mɪk/
Following a fixed set of steps.
“It is an algorithmic process.”
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nanotechnology/ˌnæn.əʊ.tekˈnɒl.ə.dʒi/
The science of building things at a tiny scale.
“Nanotechnology is advancing fast.”
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biochemistry/ˌbaɪ.əʊˈkem.ɪ.stri/
The study of the chemistry of living things.
“She studies biochemistry.”
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astrophysics/ˌæs.trəʊˈfɪz.ɪks/
The study of the physics of stars and space.
“He teaches astrophysics.”
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neuroscience/ˈnjʊə.rəʊ.saɪ.əns/
The scientific study of the brain and nerves.
“Neuroscience explores the brain.”
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taxonomy/tækˈsɒn.ə.mi/
The scientific classification of living things.
“Biologists use a strict taxonomy.”
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photosynthesis/ˌfəʊ.təʊˈsɪn.θə.sɪs/
How plants make food from sunlight.
“Plants live by photosynthesis.”
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metabolism/məˈtæb.ə.lɪ.zəm/
The chemical processes that keep a body alive.
“Exercise speeds up metabolism.”
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catalysis/kəˈtæl.ə.sɪs/
The speeding up of a reaction by a catalyst.
“Catalysis lowers the energy needed.”
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radioactive/ˌreɪ.di.əʊˈæk.tɪv/
Giving off harmful energy as particles decay.
“The waste is radioactive.”
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subatomic/ˌsʌb.əˈtɒm.ɪk/
Smaller than an atom.
“They study subatomic particles.”
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thermonuclear/ˌθɜː.məʊˈnjuː.kli.ə/
Relating to reactions caused by great heat in atoms.
“A thermonuclear reaction powers the sun.”
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centrifuge/ˈsen.trɪ.fjuːdʒ/
A machine that spins fast to separate substances.
“The sample spun in a centrifuge.”
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reagent/riˈeɪ.dʒənt/
A substance used to cause a chemical reaction.
“They added a chemical reagent.”
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petri dish/ˈpet.ri dɪʃ/
A shallow dish used to grow cells or bacteria.
“The bacteria grew in a petri dish.”
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theorem/ˈθɪə.rəm/
A statement proved to be true by reasoning.
“He proved a famous theorem.”
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empirically/ɪmˈpɪr.ɪ.kəl.i/
Based on observation and experiment.
“It is empirically proven.”
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observational/ˌɒb.zəˈveɪ.ʃən.əl/
Based on watching rather than experimenting.
“It was an observational study.”
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longitudinal/ˌlɒn.dʒɪˈtjuː.dɪ.nəl/
Studying the same subjects over a long time.
“They ran a longitudinal study.”
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placebo/pləˈsiː.bəʊ/
A harmless substance given instead of real medicine.
“Half the group got a placebo.”
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statistical/stəˈtɪs.tɪ.kəl/
Relating to the analysis of numerical data.
“The link is statistical.”
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probabilistic/ˌprɒb.ə.bɪˈlɪs.tɪk/
Based on the likelihood of events.
“The model is probabilistic.”
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deterministic/dɪˌtɜː.mɪˈnɪs.tɪk/
Believing every event has a definite cause.
“Physics once seemed deterministic.”
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quantum mechanics/ˌkwɒn.təm məˈkæn.ɪks/
The physics of very small particles.
“Quantum mechanics is baffling.”
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relativity/ˌrel.əˈtɪv.ɪ.ti/
Einstein's theory of space, time and gravity.
“Einstein’s relativity changed physics.”
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cosmology/kɒzˈmɒl.ə.dʒi/
The study of the origin and nature of the universe.
“Cosmology studies the universe.”
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genome/ˈdʒiː.nəʊm/
The complete set of genes in a living thing.
“They mapped the human genome.”
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mutation/mjuːˈteɪ.ʃən/
A change in the genes of a living thing.
“A single mutation caused it.”
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pathogen/ˈpæθ.ə.dʒən/
A tiny organism that causes disease.
“The pathogen spreads in water.”
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antibody/ˈæn.ti.bɒd.i/
A substance the body makes to fight disease.
“The body makes an antibody.”
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stem cell/ˈstem sel/
A basic cell that can develop into many types.
“Stem cell research is promising.”
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assay/əˈseɪ/
A test to find the make-up of a substance.
“They ran a blood assay.”
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fission/ˈfɪʃ.ən/
The splitting of an atom to release energy.
“Nuclear fission releases energy.”
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plasma/ˈplæz.mə/
A very hot, charged gas, or the liquid part of blood.
“The sun is made of plasma.”
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spectroscopy/spekˈtrɒs.kə.pi/
The study of how substances absorb and emit light.
“Spectroscopy reveals the elements.”
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calibration/ˌkæl.ɪˈbreɪ.ʃən/
The setting of an instrument for accuracy.
“The device needs calibration.”
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methodological/ˌmeθ.ə.dəˈlɒdʒ.ɪ.kəl/
Relating to the methods used in research.
“There was a methodological flaw.”
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interdisciplinary/ˌɪn.tə.dɪs.əˈplɪn.ər.i/
Involving two or more fields of study.
“It is interdisciplinary research.”
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modelling/ˈmɒd.əl.ɪŋ/
The making of a simplified version to study something.
“Climate modelling is complex.”
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datum/ˈdeɪ.təm/
A single piece of information.
“Each datum was checked twice.”
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null hypothesis/ˌnʌl haɪˈpɒθ.ə.sɪs/
The assumption that there is no real effect.
“They rejected the null hypothesis.”
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treatise/ˈtriː.tɪs/
A long, formal piece of writing on a subject.
“He wrote a long treatise.”
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serendipity/ˌser.ənˈdɪp.ɪ.ti/
The finding of good things by chance.
“The find was pure serendipity.”
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quantitatively/ˈkwɒn.tɪ.tə.tɪv.li/
In terms of amounts and numbers.
“They measured it quantitatively.”
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proof/pruːf/
Evidence that shows something is true.
“He offered a rigorous proof.”
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enzymatic/ˌen.zaɪˈmæt.ɪk/
Relating to or caused by enzymes.
“It is an enzymatic reaction.”
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distillation/ˌdɪs.tɪˈleɪ.ʃən/
The purifying of a liquid by heating and cooling.
“Distillation purifies the liquid.”
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inoculate/ɪˈnɒk.jə.leɪt/
To give a vaccine to protect against disease.
“Doctors inoculate against the disease.”
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fieldwork/ˈfiːld.wɜːk/
Research done outside a laboratory.
“She did fieldwork in the Amazon.”
Using science & research words in English
This page contains what may be the most consequential false friend in academic English: falsifiable does not mean capable of being faked. It means capable of being tested and shown wrong, and it is a compliment — the property that distinguishes a scientific claim from an unscientific one. The page also separates induction from deduction and settles the hyphenation of peer-reviewed.
What to watch out for
Falsifiable is a virtue, not an accusation
A claim is falsifiable if there is some possible observation that would show it to be false. On Popper’s account this is what makes a claim scientific: all swans are white is falsifiable because a black swan would refute it. It has nothing to do with forgery, which is falsification in the ordinary sense — a genuine ambiguity, since falsifying data means faking it.
Induction generalises; deduction derives
Induction moves from particular observations to a general rule, and its conclusions are probable rather than certain. Deduction moves from general premises to a particular conclusion that follows necessarily. Most empirical science is inductive, which is precisely why replicable results matter. A heuristic is a rule of thumb that works well enough without guaranteeing the right answer.
Hyphens, and parameter is not perimeter
Compound modifiers take a hyphen before the noun and lose it after: a peer-reviewed journal, but the article was peer reviewed. And a parameter is a measurable factor that defines a system — not a boundary, which is a perimeter. The loose use of parameters to mean limits is now common but still jars in scientific writing. An anomaly is an observation that does not fit the expected pattern.
Words learners mix up
Research English uses several ordinary-looking words in a strict technical sense, and the gap between the everyday meaning and the scientific one is where nearly every misreading happens. These three clusters cover the ones that matter.
What counts as established: theory, theorem, hypothesis, proof
| Word | What it actually means | In a sentence |
|---|---|---|
| hypothesis | A specific, testable prediction made before the data are collected. Plural hypotheses. | Their hypothesis was that warming would advance flowering by a week. |
| null hypothesis | The default position that there is no effect — the thing an experiment tries to reject. You never prove it, you only fail to reject it. | The study could not reject the null hypothesis. |
| theorem | A mathematical statement formally derived from axioms. Not empirical at all, and — despite the spelling — not a variant of theory. | Pythagoras’s theorem holds for every right-angled triangle. |
| proof | Belongs to mathematics and logic. Empirical science produces evidence and support, never proof — a distinction working scientists are careful about. | There is no proof in biology, only very strong evidence. |
| empiricism | The position that knowledge comes from observation rather than from reasoning alone. Names the whole approach, not any single claim. | The experiment is a triumph of empiricism. |
The word that completes this set is theory, which is not on this page’s list but is the reason the others matter. In ordinary English a theory is an unsupported guess; in science it is an explanatory framework backed by a large body of evidence — the highest status an explanation can reach. The public argument that evolution is only a theory turns entirely on that gap, and the word for the guess is hypothesis.
Four kinds of study, and what each can show
| Word | What it actually means | In a sentence |
|---|---|---|
| observational | You measure without intervening. Can establish that two things go together; cannot on its own establish that one causes the other. | An observational study of 40,000 commuters. |
| longitudinal | The same subjects followed over a long period. About the time dimension, not about whether you intervene. | A longitudinal study tracking the cohort from birth to fifty. |
| placebo | An inert treatment given so that expectation can be separated from the drug’s actual effect. | Neither group knew who was receiving the placebo. |
| fieldwork | Research done in the real setting rather than a laboratory. Uncountable, and no plural. | Six months of fieldwork in the Rift Valley. |
A study can be several of these at once — a longitudinal observational study is entirely normal. What none of them can be is replicable by assertion: that word means other teams have actually run it again and got the same result.
Going beyond the data you have
| Word | What it actually means | In a sentence |
|---|---|---|
| extrapolation | Extending a trend past the range you measured. Reliable near the edge of your data and increasingly reckless beyond it. | The forecast rests on extrapolation from three years of sales. |
| induction | Inferring a general rule from particular cases. The conclusion is probable, never certain, however many cases you have. | By induction, they concluded the enzyme was always present. |
| modelling | Building a simplified representation of a system in order to test what it would do. British spelling doubles the l. | Climate modelling suggested a two-degree rise. |
| heuristic | A rule of thumb that usually works and is not guaranteed to. Both a noun and an adjective. | A simple heuristic beat the full calculation in most trials. |
All four trade certainty for reach, which is exactly why the word anomaly matters: an observation that will not fit is the signal that the extrapolation, the model or the rule has been pushed past where it works.
Collocations that sound natural
Academic English is the most formulaic register there is, and that is an advantage — the verbs that go with these nouns are a short, fixed list, and using one of them makes a sentence read as though it came out of a journal.
hypothesis
test a hypothesisformulate a hypothesisreject the null hypothesissupport the hypothesis
Results support or are consistent with a hypothesis. They do not prove it, and journals will edit that verb out.
longitudinal
a longitudinal studyconduct a longitudinal studylongitudinal dataa longitudinal design
Studies are conducted or carried out — never made. And a study finds or suggests; only a person argues.
anomaly
account for an anomalya statistical anomalyan unexplained anomalydismiss it as an anomaly
The verb that matters is account for: an anomaly you cannot account for is a finding, not an error.
calibration
calibrate an instrumentregular calibrationout of calibrationa calibration error
proof
conclusive proofproof of conceptthe burden of proofstand as proof
Proof of concept is a fixed phrase from engineering meaning a working demonstration, and it is now standard in business English too.
serendipity
a serendipitous discoveryby pure serendipitya happy accident
The adjective is serendipitous. It describes finding something valuable you were not looking for — not mere luck, which is why it is a compliment to a researcher.
Formal, neutral or informal?
Half of this list is genuinely technical and the other half has escaped into general use, sometimes with the meaning inverted. Knowing which is which stops you sounding either pompous or unintentionally wrong.
- empiricallyAcademicMeans on the basis of observation or experiment, as opposed to from theory alone: empirically verified. The noun empiricism is the philosophical position that knowledge comes from experience.
- paradigmaticAcademicTwo senses that pull apart: in general academic use, a typical or defining example; in the history of science, belonging to a whole framework of assumptions — Kuhn’s paradigm shift. Ambiguous enough to be worth avoiding unless the context settles it.
- quantum leapInverted in general useIn physics a quantum is the smallest possible discrete change. In ordinary English a quantum leap means an enormous advance. The everyday sense is now unshiftable, but it will make a physicist wince.
- datumNear-obsoleteThe historical singular of data, surviving mainly in surveying and statistics. In almost every other sentence the natural choice is data point.
- treatiseFormal · datedA long, systematic written work on one subject. Used today mostly of older books, or ironically about anything overlong: he replied with a treatise.
- petri dishTechnical · metaphoricalLiterally a shallow lab dish; figuratively a place where something spreads unchecked — the city became a petri dish for the outbreak. The metaphor is common in journalism and is not a compliment.
- assayTechnicalA laboratory test measuring how much of a substance is present. Both noun and verb, and unrelated to the ordinary verb essay meaning to attempt.
Sentences to try
Four frames from research writing. Watch the hyphen in the first and the meaning in the second.
- The findings appeared in a peer-reviewed journal.
- A hypothesis must be falsifiable to count as scientific.
- The result proved replicable across four laboratories.
- The team could not account for the anomaly in the third run.
Questions about science & research vocabulary
Does "falsifiable" mean something can be faked?
No — and this is one of the most damaging misreadings in academic English. A statement is falsifiable if it is possible in principle to observe something that would prove it false. On Karl Popper’s account, that testability is exactly what makes a claim scientific rather than unscientific, so calling a hypothesis falsifiable is praise. The confusion arises because falsify in ordinary English does mean to forge or fake, as in falsifying results. Context separates them, but the adjective almost always carries the philosophical sense.
What is the difference between induction and deduction?
Deduction reasons from general premises to a specific conclusion that must be true if the premises are: all mammals breathe air, whales are mammals, therefore whales breathe air. Induction reasons from specific observations to a general rule, and the conclusion is only probable however many observations you have — which is the famous problem of induction. Empirical science is largely inductive, which is why replication matters so much: no number of confirming cases proves a general law, but one clear counter-example refutes it.
Is it "peer reviewed" or "peer-reviewed"?
Hyphenate it when it comes before the noun it modifies — a peer-reviewed article, peer-reviewed research — because the two words function as a single adjective there. Leave the hyphen out when the phrase follows the verb: The paper was peer reviewed before publication. As a noun on its own, peer review is two words with no hyphen: the peer review process. This before-and-after rule governs compound modifiers generally, which is why you write a well-known author but the author is well known.